Preface xi
Acknowledgments xvi
Part One The Problem 1
Introduction: What Is Truth Anyway? 3
Welcome to the Post- Truth Era? 5
Grave Consequences 10
The Arguments and Structure of the Book 11
Chapter 1 An Old Problem in a New Environment 14
Change #1: A New Information Environment 16
From Talking to Writing 17
From the Big Six to the Great Democratizing Internet 19
Everybody's a Content Creator: Web 2.0 and the Birth of Social Media 21
Change #2: A New Political Environment 23
A Constant Rain of Consequential Falsehoods 24
Misinformation from Within 27
Not Caring When He's Wrong 28
A Lot of People Are Saying 30
Conspiracy Theories at the White House 31
Moving Forward 32
Chapter 2 The Many Faces of Misinformation 34
The Rise and Fall (and Rise Again) of Propaganda 35
The Problem with Fake News 39
Rumors 41
Conspiracy Theories 42
Some Conspiracies Are Real 43
Who Believes in Conspiracy Theories 45
The Business of Conspiracy Theories 48
Weaponized Conspiracy Theories 50
Conspiracy Theories Become Mainstream Again 52
Old Wine in a New Bottle 53
Part Two Believing 63
Chapter 3 The Psychology and Cognitions Behind Misbeliefs 65
Making Sense of Information 66
The Elusive Meaning of Evidence 68
Fluency and Familiarity 69
Mental Models 69
Source Credibility 71
How Do We Assess Credibility? 72
We Don't Always Remember Who the Source Even Was 74
The Most Trusted Source: Ourselves 75
The Format Effect 76
The Power of Images 80
A Long History of Image Manipulation 82
Graphs, Numbers, and Maps 83
From Images to Audiovisual Manipulations 84
Here Comes AI 85
What Is So Different About AI? 87
When AI Fails 88
Chapter 4 Knowledge Versus Beliefs 90
On Being Ignorant 91
Knowledge about What? 92
The Deficit Model 94
Moving Away from the Deficit Model 95
Selectivity as a Defense Mechanism 96
Motivated Reasoning and Cognitive Dissonance 98
Strategies to Solve a Dissonant Feeling 99
Torn Between Two Goals 101
Selective Exposure 102
A Person with a Conviction is Hard to Change 104
Part Three Spreading 107
Chapter 5 The Spread of Misinformation 109
Misinformation Often Goes Viral 110
Misinformation Shared by Friends and Family Matters 111
Why Does Misinformation Prevail Online 112
Not a Level Playing Field 113
So, What Do Algorithms Do? 115
Why and What We Share with Other People 116
Social Currency 117
Triggers 118
Emotions 119
Utility 120
Narratives 120
Sharing Misinformation 121
The Science of Virality 121
Chapter 6 Misinformation from Elites 123
Misinformation from the Government 123
Misinformation from the Mass Media 125
A Brief Primer on Media Effects 128
The First Era of Perceived Media Effects 129
The Second Era of Perceived Media Effects 130
The Third Era of Perceived Media Effects 131
Do Journalists Spread Biased Misinformation on Purpose? 132
If Not Driven by Bias, Why Do Journalists Spread Misinformation? 133
Sometimes Journalists Do Lie 134
The Case of Fox News 135
The 21st Century: New Technologies, New Exaggerated Expectations 138
Hope of Deliverance: The Early Days of the Web 140
Misinformation from Entertainment Media 141
Cultivation Effects 143
Stereotypes 144
Misinformation from Industries and Corporations 144
The Systematic Denial of Climate Science 146
Chapter 7 Misinformation from Nonelites 148
The Instagramable Life 149
Some Nonelites Lie Significantly More Than Others 151
Misbelieving Together 152
Stop the Steal 156
Who Is a Human Anyway? Trolls, Bots, and Sock Puppets 157
Foreign Interference 158
Part Four In Context 161
Chapter 8 Misinformation and Politics 163
Simple Minds, Gordian Knots 164
What Do Citizens Know (or not) About Politics? 165
The Power of Social Identity 166
The Great Political Realignment 167
Political Polarization or Political Sorting? 168
Affective Polarization 170
The Dangers of Group Identification 171
The Age of Mega- Identities 173
The New Rattlers and Eagles 175
Selective Exposure Revisited 177
Epilogue: Political Polarization, Intolerance, and Misinformation 179
Chapter 9 Misinformation and Science 181
Communicating Science Effectively 183
Because It Works? 184
Because Scientists are Smart and Competent? 185
Because Science Relies on Methods of Observation? 186
Science as a Collective Effort 189
The Failures of News Media When Communicating Science 191
Communicating Science is Hard and May Come at a Cost 194
The Rise of Alternative Medicine 195
Ineffective Treatments Can Still Be Unsafe 197
When Anti-Vaccine Sentiment Intersects with Politics 203
Chapter 10 The Politicization of Science 204
Attacks from the Left 209
The Science Wars 210
Science Enters the Culture War 211
What Should Be Considered a Part of the Culture Wars? 213
Science and Culture Wars 215
Part Five Intervening 223
Chapter 11 Who Should Fight Misinformation? 225
Market Facilitators, Editors, and Organizers 226
Transparency and Data Sharing 229
Experts, Advocates, and Club Coordinators 232
What Can Journalists Do to Restore Trust? 234
Governmental Regulation and Legislation 236
The Problem with Self- Regulation 239
What Now? 243
Reconsidering Anti- Trust Procedures 245
Are Interventions Even Useful? 246
Alternatives to Content Moderation 248
Hope for Education 249
Chapter 12 Uphill Battles, or Why Corrections Fail 252
Mental Models 253
Fluency and Familiarity 255
Belief Echoes 256
Some Solutions Are Better Than Others 258
Emotional Causal Narratives 258
Considering Values, Worldview, Morality, and Faith 258
Inoculation 261
Restoring Trust in Liberal Democratic Institutions 262
Conclusion 265
References 275
Index 325
