About the Editors xiii
List of Contributors xv
Foreword xxi
Preface xxii
Section I Sustainable Natural Resource Management 1
1 Impact of Local REDD+ Intervention on Greenhouse Gas Emissions in East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia 3
Kiswanto, Martiwi Diah Setiawati, and Satoshi Tsuyuki
1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Tropical Deforestation 3
1.1.2 REDD+ 3
1.1.3 REDD+ in Indonesia 4
1.2 Materials and Methods 5
1.2.1 Spatial Dataset 5
1.2.2 Carbon Stock in Each Land Cover Class 5
1.2.3 Change in Carbon Stock and CO2 Emission 7
1.2.4 Historical Baselines and Future Trajectories 7
1.3 Results 8
1.3.1 Annual GHG Emissions 8
1.3.2 Historical Baselines and Future Trajectories 9
1.4 Discussion 10
1.5 Conclusions 12
Acknowledgement 12
Author Contribution 12
List of Appendix 13
References 14
2 Role of Geospatial Technologies in Natural Resource Management 19
Abhishek K. Kala and Manoj Kumar
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Applications of Geospatial Technology in Natural Resource Management 20
2.2.1 Forest Management 20
2.2.2 Water Resource Management 21
2.2.3 Water Quality Monitoring 22
2.2.4 Agriculture 23
2.2.5 Combating Desertification 25
2.2.6 Biodiversity Management 25
2.3 LiDAR Technology 26
2.4 Artificial Intelligence and Remote Sensing 26
2.5 Machine Learning Tools for Natural Resource Management 27
2.6 Applications of Unmanned Aerial Systems in Natural Resource Management 28
2.7 Google Earth Engine as a Platform for Environmental Monitoring and NRM 29
2.8 Conclusion 29
References 30
3 Estimation of Snow Cover Area Using Microwave SAR Dataset 35
Shafiyoddin B. Sayyad and Mudassar A. Shaikh
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Classification Technique 36
3.2.1 Unsupervised Classification 36
3.2.1.1 H A Alpha Unsupervised Classification 36
3.2.1.2 Wishart H A Alpha Unsupervised Classification 37
3.2.2 Supervised Classification 37
3.2.2.1 Wishart Supervised Classification 38
3.2.2.2 Support Vector Machine (SVM) Supervised Classification 38
3.3 Statistical Parameters 39
3.3.1 Mean 39
3.3.2 Standard Deviation 40
3.3.3 Coefficient Variance 40
3.3.4 Equivalence Number of Looks (ENL) 40
3.4 Error and Accuracy Assessment 40
3.4.1 Confusion Matrix 41
3.4.2 Commission Error 41
3.4.3 Omission Error 42
3.5 Study Area 42
3.6 Methodology 43
3.7 Result and Discussion 44
3.8 Conclusion and Future Perspective 52
References 52
Section II Determinants of Forest Productivity 57
4 Forest Cover Change Detection Across Recent Three Decades in Persian Oak
Forests Using Convolutional Neural Network 59
Alireza Sharifi, Shilan Felegari, Aqil Tariq, and Saima Siddiqui
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 Materials and Methods 61
4.2.1 Study Area 61
4.2.2 Dataset 61
4.2.3 Image Pre-processing 64
4.2.4 Image Classification 64
4.3 Results and Discussion 65
4.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects 68
References 69
5 The Interlinked Mechanisms of Productivity for Developing Process-Based
Forest Growth Models 74
Keshav Tyagi, Manoj Kumar, Sweta Nisha Phukon, Abhishek Ranjan, Pavan Kumar,and Ram Kumar Singh
5.1 Introduction 74
5.2 Productivity: Definition and Associated Components 76
5.3 Various Processes and Components Driving Forest Productivity 77
5.3.1 Photosynthesis 78
5.3.2 Light Interception 79
5.3.3 Stomatal Conductance 79
5.3.4 Leaf Area Index 79
5.3.5 Gas-Exchange 80
5.3.6 Plant Respiration 80
5.3.7 Hydrology 81
5.3.8 Nitrogen Cycle 81
5.3.9 Litterfall 81
5.4 Different Approaches to Productivity Assessment 82
5.5 Evolution of Process-Based Models 83
5.6 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 Allometric Equations for the Estimation of Biomass and Carbon in the Sub- tropical Pine Forests of India 89
Harshi Jain, Keshav Tyagi, Akshay Paygude, Pavan Kumar, Ram Kumar Singh, andManoj Kumar
6.1 Introduction 89
6.1.1 Species of Pine in India and its Associates 91
6.1.2 Uses of Chirpine 91
6.2 Chir Pine - a Boon or Bane? 92
6.3 Forest Carbon and Forest Biomass 93
6.4 Composition of Forest Biomass 94
6.4.1 Indian Forest Biomass and Carbon Estimates 94
6.4.2 Importance of Forest Biomass Estimation 95
6.5 Allometric Equations for Biomass Estimation 96
6.5.1 How Are Allometric Equations Developed? 96
6.6 Biomass and Carbon Stock Estimation in Chir Pine Forests of India Using Allometric Equations 97
6.7 Conclusion 101
References 102
Section III Agriculture and Climate Change 109
7 Characterization of Stress-Prone Areas for Dissemination of Suitable Rice Varieties and their Adoption in Eastern India: An Integrated Approach toward Food Security 111
Sk Mosharaf Hossain, Devi Dayal Sinha, and Swati Nayak
7.1 Introduction 111
7.1.1 Characterization of Stress-Prone (Flood and Drought) Areas in Eastern India: Geo-Spatial Based Studies (Submergence and Drought) 112
7.1.2 Eastern India (Submergence Study - Assam) 114
7.1.3 Eastern India (Drought Study - Uttar Pradesh) 115
7.1.4 Rice-Growing Environments in India and Constraints 116
7.1.5 Abiotic Stress in the Context of Rice Production 117
7.2 Materials and Method (for Submergence-prone: Assam) 118
7.3 Results and Discussion 120
7.4 Conclusions 127
References 128
8 Farmers' Perspective and Adaptation Efforts to Tackle the Impacts of Climate Change 132
Shivani Mehta and Shridhar Samant
8.1 Introduction 132
8.2 Methodology 135
8.3 Results and Analysis 137
8.3.1 Trends in Rainfall Patterns 137
8.3.1.1 Trends in Annual Rainfall 137
8.3.1.2 Trends in Rainy Days 140
8.3.1.3 Trends in Actual and Normal (Expected) Rainfall for Every Month 144
8.3.2 Impact of Climate Change on Farmers 148
8.3.2.1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents 148
8.3.2.2 Livelihood 148
8.3.2.3 Pests and Diseases 149
8.4 Understanding the Farmer's Perception of Climate Change 149
8.5 Adaptation Efforts 150
8.6 Conclusion 151
References 152
Section IV Water Resource Management and Riverine Health 157
9 Multicriteria Drought Severity Analysis in Monaragala District Sri Lanka by Utilizing Remote Sensing and GIS 159
K.U.J. Sandamali, K.A.M. Chathuranga, B.A.S.C. Kumara, and D.K.D.A. Ranaweera
9.1 Introduction 159
9.2 Methodology 162
9.2.1 Study Area 162
9.2.2 Data Sources and Data Collection Techniques 163
9.3 Meteorological Drought of Monaragala District 164
9.4 Agricultural Drought of Monaragala District 167
9.4.1 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) 167
9.4.2 Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) 167
9.5 Hydrological Drought of Monaragala District 169
9.6 Drought Risk Area Map of Monaragala District 173
9.7 Conclusion and Recommendations 177
9.8 Conclusion 177
9.9 Recommendation 179
References 180
10 Comparative Evaluation of Predicted Hydrologic Response Under Two Extremities of Sustainability Using Transformed Landuse-Landcover and CORDEX-Based Climatic Scenarios: A Case Study of Kangshabati River Basin, West Bengal 183
Shreyashi Santra Mitra, Akhilesh Kumar, Abhisek Santra, and Shidharth Routh
10.1 Introduction 183
10.2 A Brief Account of the Kangshabati River Basin, the Study Area 185
10.3 Data and Methodological Description 187
10.3.1 Model Data Input 187
10.3.2 Land Change Scenarios Using Idrisi Land Change Modeler (LCM) 190
10.3.3 SWAT Model Setup for Simulating Hydrologic Responses 194
10.4 Results and Observations 195
10.4.1 Trends in Climatic Indicators 195
10.4.2 Trends in Land Use and Land Cover Change Scenarios 198
10.4.3 Trends in Volumetric Runoff 204
10.4.4 Trends in Surface Runoff 209
10.5 Conclusion 214
References 215
11 Riverine Health a Function of Riverscape Variable: A Case Study of the River Ganga in Varanasi 219
Shikha Sharma, Harshith Clifford Prince, Arijit Roy, and Madhoolika Agarwal
11.1 Introduction 219
11.2 Material and Methods 222
11.2.1 Study Area 222
11.2.1.1 Sampling Zones 222
11.2.1.2 Survey Sites 222
11.2.2 Data Collection 223
11.2.2.1 Water Sample Collection and Analysis 223
11.2.2.2 Survey Method 224
11.2.3 Statistical Analysis 224
11.2.3.1 Cluster Analysis 224
11.2.3.2 Correlations Between Land Use Classes and Water Quality Parameters 225
11.3 Result and Discussion 225
11.3.1 Land Use and Water Quality 225
11.3.2 Land Use and Biodiversity 227
11.3.3 Land Use and Societal Perceptions 228
11.3.3.1 Livelihood Earners Perceptions 228
11.3.3.2 Tourists' Perception 229
11.4 Conclusions 231
References 231
Section V Climate Change Threat on Natural Resources 237
12 Socio-Economic Impacts of Climate Change 239
Shubhi Patel, Anwesha Dey, Shani Kumar Singh, Rakesh Singh, and H.P. Singh
12.1 Introduction 239
12.2 Trends in Climate Variables 240
12.3 Welfare Impact of Climate Change 242
12.4 Impact on Agriculture 244
12.5 Impact of Climate Change on Society 246
12.5.1 Food Security 246
12.5.2 Labor Productivity 247
12.5.3 Health and Nutrition 248
12.5.4 Adaptation Risk and Potential 248
12.6 Conclusion 262
References 263
13 The Political Economy of Vulnerable Environment in the Age of Climate Change: A Kerala Experience 268
P. RatheeshMon
13.1 Introduction 268
13.2 Climate Change in Kerala 269
13.3 Climate and Sea Level Change Projections 270
13.4 Natural Disasters Associated with Climate Change 270
13.5 The Political Economy of Climate Change and Associated Disasters 273
13.6 Who Are the Affected? 275
13.7 Conclusion and Suggestions 276
References 276
14 Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) Changes in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia: Explore the Impact of the LULC Changes on Land Surface Temperature (LST) Using Remote Sensing 279
Mohd Hasmadi Ismail, Darren How Jin Aik, Mohamad Azani Alias, Farrah MelissaMuharam, and Pakhriazad Hassan Zaki
14.1 Introduction 279
14.2 Effectiveness of Usage of Satellite Imagery in Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) Change 281
14.3 The Impact of LULC Changes on Land Surface Temperature (LST) 282
14.4 Methodology 283
14.4.1 Cameron Highlands 283
14.4.2 Data Collection 284
14.4.3 Field Verification 284
14.4.4 Image Processing 285
14.5 Land Use/Cover Changes in Cameron Highland from 2009 to 2019 287
14.5.1 Accuracy Assessment 290
14.6 Land Surface Temperature Analysis of Comparative Sensors between Landsat Satellite Data and MODIS 291
14.7 The LULC Effect on LST in Cameron Highlands 292
14.8 Conclusions 296
References 297
Section VI Linkages between Natural Resources and Biotic-Abiotic Stressors 303
15 Emerging Roles of Osmoprotectants in Alleviating Abiotic Stress Response Under Changing Climatic Conditions 305
Debasish Pattnaik, Deepali Dash, Ankita Mishra, Aditya Kiran Padhiary, Prajjal Dey,and Goutam Kumar Dash
15.1 Introduction 305
15.2 Role of Osmoprotectant Under Abiotic Stress 306
15.3 Role of Osmoprotectants Under Drought Stress 306
15.4 Role of Osmoprotectants Under Salinity Stress 307
15.5 Role of Osmoprotectants Under Cold Stress 307
15.6 Role of Osmoprotectants Under Submergence Stress 308
15.7 Role of Osmoprotectants Under Low Light Stress 308
15.8 Mechanisms of Osmoprotectants Under Multiple Abiotic Stress 309
15.9 Approaches to Improve Osmoprotectants to Confer Abiotic Stress Tolerance 313
15.10 Metabolic Engineering Approach 315
15.11 Future Prospect for Osmoprotectants Under Changing Climatic Conditions 316
References 316
16 Growth Variability of Conifers in Temperate Region of Western Himalayas 325
Ufaid Mehraj, Akhlaq Amin Wani, Aasif Ali Gatoo, Mohammd Ajaz-ul-Islam, Shah Murtaza Mushtaq, Amir Farooq, Immad Ahmad Shah, and Tariq Hussain Masoodi
16.1 Introduction 325
16.2 Material and Methods 326
16.2.1 Study Area 326
16.2.2 Collection of Core Samples 326
16.3 Results 328
16.4 Discussion 332
16.4.1 Species-Wise 332
16.4.2 Site-Wise 332
16.4.3 Diameter Class-Wise 333
16.5 Conclusion 333
References 334
17 Process-Based Carbon Sequestration Study with Reference to the Energy-Water-Carbon Flux in a Forest Ecosystem 336
Hukum Singh
17.1 Introduction 336
17.2 Concept of Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere- Transfer (SVAT) 338
17.3 History of Flux Measurements and Recent Advances-Different Methods 339
17.4 Exchange Flux Measurements over Forest Ecosystems 340
17.4.1 Fast Response System: Eddy Covariance or Eddy Correlation Measurements 341
17.4.2 Slow-Response System 341
17.4.2.1 Bowen Ratio Measurements 341
17.4.2.2 Aerodynamic Flux Profile Method 342
17.5 Ecosystem Flux Measurements Network Worldwide and Indian Scenario 343
17.5.1 The Worldwide Network: The FLUXNET 343
17.5.2 Scenario in India and Prospects 344
17.5.3 The Proposed Concept of IndoFlux 345
17.6 State of the Current Knowledge at Forest Research Institute, Dehradun 345
17.7 Research Gaps and Future Needs 346
17.8 Conclusion 347
References 347
Index 352
