About the Authors x
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
1 Defining Multilingualism 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Evolutionary Roots of Language 3
1.3 Theoretical Perspectives of Multilingualism 5
1.3.1 Linguistic Perspectives 5
1.3.2 Sociolinguistic Perspectives 6
1.3.3 Cognitive Perspectives 6
1.4 Various Forms of Multilingualism 8
1.4.1 Individual Multilingualism 8
1.4.2 Societal Multilingualism 8
1.4.3 Transnational Multilingualism 9
Summary 10
Further Reading 10
Study Questions 11
References 11
2 Learning More than One Language 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Similarities and Differences Between L1 and L2 Acquisition 14
2.3 Linguistic Development of Multiple Languages 15
2.3.1 Acquisition of L2 Phonology 15
2.3.2 Acquisition of L2 Morphology 17
2.3.3 Acquisition of L2 Syntax 17
2.3.4 Acquisition of L2 Communicative and Pragmatic Competences 20
2.4 Factors Affecting L2 Acquisition 22
2.4.1 Learning Style 22
2.4.2 Cross- Linguistic Influences 22
2.4.3 Age 24
2.4.4 Language Aptitude 24
2.4.5 Working Memory Capacity 25
2.4.6 Gender 25
2.4.7 Affective Factors 25
2.4.8 Learning Environment 26
2.5 Classroom Pedagogies Used by L2 Educators 27
2.5.1 Early Approaches to L2 Teaching and Learning 27
2.5.2 Communicative Approaches to L2 Teaching 28
2.5.3 Sociocultural Approaches to L2 Teaching 29
2.5.4 Processing Instruction 30
2.5.5 Immersion Programs 31
2.5.6 Technology- Enhanced L2 Teaching 31
Summary 32
Further Reading 33
Study Questions 33
References 34
3 Psycholinguistic Models of Multilingualism 38
3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 Speech Production Models 39
3.2.1 Foundations from Monolingual Speech Production 39
3.2.1.1 Dell's (1986) Spreading Activation Model 40
3.2.1.2 Levelt's (1989) Modular Speaking Model 41
3.2.2 Developments in Multilingualism 42
3.2.2.1 Kormos' (2006) Bilingual Speech Production Model 42
3.3 Comprehension Models 44
3.3.1 Foundations from Monolingual Comprehension 44
3.3.1.1 Interactive Activation Model 44
3.3.1.2 The TRACE Model 45
3.3.2 Developments in Multilingualism 46
3.3.2.1 Bilingual Interactive Activation Model 46
3.3.2.2 Bilingual Model of Lexical Access 47
3.4 Multilingual Models of Lexical and Conceptual Memory 48
3.4.1 Revised Hierarchical Model 49
3.4.2 Modified Hierarchical Model 50
3.5 Multilingual Models of Language Control 50
3.5.1 Inhibitory Control Model 51
3.5.2 Adaptive Control Hypothesis 52
3.5.3 Cognitive Effects of Language Switching 53
Summary 54
Further Reading 55
Study Questions 55
References 55
4 The Multilingual Brain 58
4.1 Introduction 58
4.2 Where Are Languages Located in the Brain? 59
4.3 Multilingualism and Changes to the Brain 60
4.3.1 Neuroplasticity 60
4.3.2 Structural Changes to the Brain 61
4.3.3 Neural Remodeling 62
4.4 What Happens to Languages After Brain Trauma? 63
4.4.1 How Does Damage to Brain Areas Affect Languages? 63
4.4.2 What Premorbid Factors Influence Aphasia in Multilinguals? 63
4.5 Clinical Assessment and Treatment of Aphasia Among Multilinguals 66
4.5.1 How Is Aphasia Diagnosed in Multilingual Patients? 66
4.5.2 Language Rehabilitation in Multilingual Aphasics 67
4.6 Clinical Recovery Patterns of Languages in Multilingual Patients 70
Summary 71
Further Reading 72
Study Questions 72
References 72
5 Cognitive Effects of Multilingualism 77
5.1 Introduction 77
5.2 Cognitive Processes of Multilingualism: A Look at Inhibitory Control in Language Switching 78
5.3 Multilingualism in Children, Adults, and Older Adults 80
5.3.1 Multilingual Children 80
5.3.2 Multilingual Adults 80
5.3.3 Multilingual Older Adults 81
5.4 Cognitive Effects of Multilingualism Across the Lifespan 82
5.4.1 Children 82
5.4.2 Adults 83
5.4.3 Older Adults 85
Summary 86
Further Reading 87
Study Questions 87
References 87
6 Multilingualism Across the Lifespan 91
6.1 Introduction 91
6.2 Early Research and Views on Multilingualism 92
6.3 Multilingual Children 94
6.4 Multilingual Adolescents 97
6.5 Multilingual Middle and Older Adults 98
Summary 100
Further Reading 100
Study Questions 100
References 101
7 Language Attrition and Maintenance 104
7.1 Introduction 104
7.2 Language Attrition 105
7.3 Language Attrition Across Linguistic Domains 107
7.3.1 Sound 107
7.3.2 Vocabulary 108
7.3.3 Grammar 109
7.4 Language Maintenance and Revitalization 110
Summary 114
Further Reading 114
Study Questions 114
References 115
8 Multilingual Communities and Families in Society 117
8.1 Introduction 117
8.2 Societal Multilingualism 118
8.3 Multilingual Communities 121
8.4 Multilingual Families 125
8.4.1 New Family Structures and Relations: Cross- Linguistic Adoption 130
8.5 Tensions Between Societal Policy and Everyday Lived Experiences of Multilinguals 131
Summary 132
Further Reading 132
Study Questions 132
References 133
9 Multilingualism in Education 134
9.1 Introduction 134
9.2 Types of Multilingual Education Programs 135
9.3 Medium of Instruction Policies and Multilingual Pedagogies 138
9.4 Multilingual Classroom Interaction 141
9.5 Multilingual Assessment 144
9.6 Multilingual Education and Social Justice 145
Summary 147
Further Reading 147
Study Questions 147
References 148
10 Digital Technology, Media, and Multilingualism 149
10.1 Introduction 149
10.2 Digital Transformation of Multilingualism: In What Way Has the World Become More Multilingual? 150
10.3 Multilingual Internet 153
10.4 Social Media and Multilingual Interaction 156
10.5 AI, Future Technologies, and Multilingual Futures 163
Summary 164
Further Reading 165
Study Questions 165
References 165
11 Beyond Multilingualism: Rethinking Practice, Policy, and Theory from a Translingual Perspective 166
11.1 Introduction 166
11.2 From Multi- to Trans- Lingual: More than a Terminological Shift 167
11.3 Examples of Post- Multilingualism 169
11.3.1 Trans- Scripting/Tranßcripting 169
11.3.2 Kongish 170
11.4 The Nature of Languages from a Translanguaging Perspective 173
11.5 Implications for Education Policy and Practice 176
Summary 178
Further Reading 179
Study Questions 179
References 179
12 Designing and Conducting Research in Multilingualism 181
12.1 Introduction 181
12.1.1 Defining Research Questions 182
12.1.2 Choosing a Research Design 183
12.1.3 Collecting Data 183
12.1.4 Analyzing Findings 183
12.1.5 Ethical Considerations 184
12.2 Methods Examining Multilingual Development in Classroom Settings 184
12.2.1 Observational Research 184
12.2.2 Quasi- Experimental Research 186
12.2.3 Longitudinal vs. Cross- Sectional Research 186
12.2.4 Action Research 188
12.2.5 Introspective Research 188
12.3 Methods Examining Individual Differences 189
12.4 Methods Examining Corpora of Multilingual Use 190
12.5 Methods Examining Language Processing and the Brain 191
12.5.1 Eyetracking 191
12.5.2 Electroencephalography 192
12.5.3 Brain Imaging 194
12.6 Methods of Sociolinguistic Aspects of Multilingualism 198
12.6.1 Ethnographies 198
12.6.2 Case Studies 199
12.6.3 Interviews: Natural and Controlled Language Elicitation 199
12.7 Methods of Pragmatics Aspects of Multilingualism 200
Summary 203
Further Reading 203
Study Questions 204
References 204
Glossary 206
Index 223
