1 Introduction To Microelectronics 1
1.1 Electronics Versus Microelectronics 1
1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 2
1.2.1 Cellular Telephone 2
1.2.2 Digital Camera 5
1.2.3 Analog Versus Digital 7
1.3 Basic Concepts 8
1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals 8
1.3.2 Analog Circuits 10
1.3.3 Digital Circuits 11
1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems 12
1.4 Chapter Summary 20
2 Basic Physics Of Semiconductors 21
2.1 Semiconductor Materials and Their Properties 22
2.1.1 Charge Carriers in Solids 22
2.1.2 Modification of Carrier Densities 25
2.1.3 Transport of Carriers 28
2.2 pn Junction 35
2.2.1 pn Junction in Equilibrium 36
2.2.2 pn Junction Under Reverse Bias 41
2.2.3 pn Junction Under Forward Bias 46
2.2.4 I/V Characteristics 49
2.3 Reverse Breakdown 54
2.3.1 Zener Breakdown 55
2.3.2 Avalanche Breakdown 55
2.4 Chapter Summary 56
Problems 57
SPICE Problems 60
3 Diode Models and Circuits 61
3.1 Ideal Diode 62
3.1.1 Initial Thoughts 62
3.1.2 Ideal Diode 63
3.1.3 Application Examples 67
3.2 pn Junction as a Diode 72
3.3 Additional Examples 74
3.4 Large-Signal and Small-Signal Operation 80
3.5 Applications of Diodes 89
3.5.1 Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers 89
3.5.2 Voltage Regulation 100
3.5.3 Limiting Circuits 103
3.5.4 Voltage Doublers 106
3.5.5 Diodes as Level Shifters and Switches 112
3.6 Chapter Summary 114
Problems 115
SPICE Problems 122
4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 124
4.1 General Considerations 125
4.2 Structure of Bipolar Transistor 126
4.3 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode 127
4.3.1 Collector Current 129
4.3.2 Base and Emitter Currents 133
4.4 Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics 135
4.4.1 Large-Signal Model 135
4.4.2 I/V Characteristics 137
4.4.3 Concept of Transconductance 139
4.4.4 Small-Signal Model 141
4.4.5 Early Effect 145
4.5 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode 152
4.6 The PNP Transistor 155
4.6.1 Structure and Operation 155
4.6.2 Large-Signal Model 156
4.6.3 Small-Signal Model 159
4.7 Chapter Summary 162
Problems 163
SPICE Problems 170
5 Bipolar Amplifiers 172
5.1 General Considerations 173
5.1.1 Input and Output Impedances 173
5.1.2 Biasing 178
5.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis 178
5.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design 180
5.2.1 Simple Biasing 181
5.2.2 Resistive Divider Biasing 183
5.2.3 Biasing with Emitter Degeneration 186
5.2.4 Self-Biased Stage 190
5.2.5 Biasing of PNP Transistors 192
5.3 Bipolar Amplifier Topologies 196
5.3.1 Common-Emitter Topology 197
5.3.2 Common-Base Topology 224
5.3.3 Emitter Follower 238
5.4 Summary and Additional Examples 246
5.5 Chapter Summary 253
Problems 253
SPICE Problems 267
6 Physics of Mos Transistors 269
6.1 Structure of MOSFET 270
6.2 Operation of MOSFET 272
6.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 272
6.2.2 Derivation of I-V Characteristics 279
6.2.3 Channel-Length Modulation 288
6.2.4 MOS Transconductance 290
6.2.5 Velocity Saturation 292
6.2.6 Other Second-Order Effects 292
6.3 MOS Device Models 293
6.3.1 Large-Signal Model 293
6.3.2 Small-Signal Model 295
6.4 PMOS Transistor 296
6.5 CMOS Technology 299
6.6 Comparison of Bipolar and MOS Devices 300
6.7 Chapter Summary 300
Problems 301
SPICE Problems 308
7 Cmos Amplifiers 309
7.1 General Considerations 310
7.1.1 MOS Amplifier Topologies 310
7.1.2 Biasing 310
7.1.3 Realization of Current Sources 313
7.2 Common-Source Stage 315
7.2.1 CS Core 315
7.2.2 CS Stage with Current-Source Load 318
7.2.3 CS Stage with Diode- Connected Load 319
7.2.4 CS Stage with Degeneration 320
7.2.5 CS Core with Biasing 323
7.3 Common-Gate Stage 325
7.3.1 CG Stage with Biasing 329
7.4 Source Follower 331
7.4.1 Source Follower Core 331
7.4.2 Source Follower with Biasing 333
7.5 Summary and Additional Examples 336
7.6 Chapter Summary 340
Problems 341
SPICE Problems 353
8 Operational Amplifier As a Black Box 355
8.1 General Considerations 356
8.2 Op-Amp-Based Circuits 358
8.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier 358
8.2.2 Inverting Amplifier 360
8.2.3 Integrator and Differentiator 363
8.2.4 Voltage Adder 371
8.3 Nonlinear Functions 373
8.3.1 Precision Rectifier 373
8.3.2 Logarithmic Amplifier 374
8.3.3 Square-Root Amplifier 375
8.4 Op Amp Nonidealities 376
8.4.1 DC Offsets 376
8.4.2 Input Bias Current 379
8.4.3 Speed Limitations 382
8.4.4 Finite Input and Output Impedances 387
8.5 Design Examples 388
8.6 Chapter Summary 390
Problems 391
SPICE Problems 397
9 Cascode Stages and Current Mirrors 398
9.1 Cascode Stage 399
9.1.1 Cascode as a Current Source 399
9.1.2 Cascode as an Amplifier 405
9.2 Current Mirrors 414
9.2.1 Initial Thoughts 414
9.2.2 Bipolar Current Mirror 416
9.2.3 MOS Current Mirror 425
9.3 Chapter Summary 429
Problems 430
SPICE Problems 441
10 Differential Amplifiers 443
10.1 General Considerations 444
10.1.1 Initial Thoughts 444
10.1.2 Differential Signals 446
10.1.3 Differential Pair 449
10.2 Bipolar Differential Pair 452
10.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 452
10.2.2 Large-Signal Analysis 458
10.2.3 Small-Signal Analysis 463
10.3 MOS Differential Pair 469
10.3.1 Qualitative Analysis 469
10.3.2 Large-Signal Analysis 473
10.3.3 Small-Signal Analysis 478
10.4 Cascode Differential Amplifiers 481
10.5 Common-Mode Rejection 485
10.6 Differential Pair with Active Load 489
10.6.1 Qualitative Analysis 490
10.6.2 Quantitative Analysis 492
10.7 Chapter Summary 496
Problems 497
SPICE Problems 509
11 Frequency Response 511
11.1 Fundamental Concepts 512
11.1.1 General Considerations 512
11.1.2 Relationship Between Transfer Function and Frequency Response 515
11.1.3 Bode's Rules 518
11.1.4 Association of Poles with Nodes 519
11.1.5 Miller's Theorem 521
11.1.6 General Frequency Response 525
11.2 High-Frequency Models of Transistors 529
11.2.1 High-Frequency Model of Bipolar Transistor 529
11.2.2 High-Frequency Model of Mosfet 531
11.2.3 Transit Frequency 532
11.3 Analysis Procedure 534
11.4 Frequency Response of CE and CS Stages 535
11.4.1 Low-Frequency Response 535
11.4.2 High-Frequency Response 536
11.4.3 Use of Miller's Theorem 537
11.4.4 Direct Analysis 539
11.4.5 Input Impedance 543
11.5 Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages 544
11.5.1 Low-Frequency Response 544
11.5.2 High-Frequency Response 544
11.6 Frequency Response of Followers 547
11.6.1 Input and Output Impedances 550
11.7 Frequency Response of Cascode Stage 553
11.7.1 Input and Output Impedances 557
11.8 Frequency Response of Differential Pairs 558
11.8.1 Common-Mode Frequency Response 559
11.9 Additional Examples 561
11.10 Chapter Summary 564
Problems 565
SPICE Problems 573
12 Feedback 575
12.1 General Considerations 577
12.1.1 Loop Gain 579
12.2 Properties of Negative Feedback 582
12.2.1 Gain Desensitization 582
12.2.2 Bandwidth Extension 584
12.2.3 Modification of I/O Impedances 586
12.2.4 Linearity Improvement 589
12.3 Types of Amplifiers 591
12.3.1 Simple Amplifier Models 591
12.3.2 Examples of Amplifier Types 593
12.4 Sense and Return Techniques 595
12.5 Polarity of Feedback 598
12.6 Feedback Topologies 600
12.6.1 Voltage-Voltage Feedback 600
12.6.2 Voltage-Current Feedback 605
12.6.3 Current-Voltage Feedback 608
12.6.4 Current-Current Feedback 613
12.7 Effect of Nonideal I/O Impedances 616
12.7.1 Inclusion of I/O Effects 617
12.8 Stability in Feedback Systems 628
12.8.1 Review of Bode's Rules 629
12.8.2 Problem of Instability 630
12.8.3 Stability Condition 633
12.8.4 Phase Margin 636
12.8.5 Frequency Compensation 638
12.8.6 Miller Compensation 641
12.9 Chapter Summary 642
Problems 643
SPICE Problems 654
13 Oscillators 656
13.1 General Considerations 656
13.2 Ring Oscillators 659
13.3 LC Oscillators 664
13.3.1 Parallel LC Tanks 664
13.3.2 Cross-Coupled Oscillator 667
13.3.3 Colpitts Oscillator 670
13.4 Phase Shift Oscillator 672
13.5 Wien-Bridge Oscillator 675
13.6 Crystal Oscillators 677
13.6.1 Crystal Model 678
13.6.2 Negative-Resistance Circuit 679
13.6.3 Crystal Oscillator Implementation 681
13.7 Chapter Summary 683
Problems 684
SPICE Problems 688
14 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers 690
14.1 General Considerations 690
14.2 Emitter Follower as Power Amplifier 691
14.3 Push-Pull Stage 694
14.4 Improved Push-Pull Stage 697
14.4.1 Reduction of Crossover Distortion 697
14.4.2 Addition of CE Stage 701
14.5 Large-Signal Considerations 704
14.5.1 Biasing Issues 704
14.5.2 Omission of PNP Power Transistor 705
14.5.3 High-Fidelity Design 708
14.6 Short-Circuit Protection 708
14.7 Heat Dissipation 709
14.7.1 Emitter Follower Power Rating 710
14.7.2 Push-Pull Stage Power Rating 711
14.7.3 Thermal Runaway 713
14.8 Efficiency 714
14.8.1 Efficiency of Emitter Follower 714
14.8.2 Efficiency of Push-Pull Stage 715
14.9 Power Amplifier Classes 716
14.10 Chapter Summary 717
Problems 718
SPICE Problems 723
15 Analog Filters 725
15.1 General Considerations 725
15.1.1 Filter Characteristics 726
15.1.2 Classification of Filters 727
15.1.3 Filter Transfer Function 730
15.1.4 Problem of Sensitivity 734
15.2 First-Order Filters 735
15.3 Second-Order Filters 738
15.3.1 Special Cases 738
15.3.2 RLC Realizations 742
15.4 Active Filters 747
15.4.1 Sallen and Key Filter 747
15.4.2 Integrator-Based Biquads 753
15.4.3 Biquads Using Simulated Inductors 756
15.5 Approximation of Filter Response 761
15.5.1 Butterworth Response 762
15.5.2 Chebyshev Response 766
15.6 Chapter Summary 771
Problems 772
SPICE Problems 776
16 Digital Cmos Circuits 778
16.1 General Considerations 778
16.1.1 Static Characterization of Gates 779
16.1.2 Dynamic Characterization of Gates 786
16.1.3 Power-Speed Trade-Off 789
16.2 CMOS Inverter 791
16.2.1 Initial Thoughts 791
16.2.2 Voltage Transfer Characteristic 793
16.2.3 Dynamic Characteristics 799
16.2.4 Power Dissipation 804
16.3 CMOS NOR and NAND Gates 808
16.3.1 NOR Gate 808
16.3.2 NAND Gate 811
16.4 Chapter Summary 812
Problems 813
SPICE Problems 818
17 Cmos Amplifiers 819
17.1 General Considerations 819
17.1.1 Input and Output Impedances 820
17.1.2 Biasing 824
17.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis 825
17.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design 826
17.2.1 Simple Biasing 828
17.2.2 Biasing with Source Degeneration 830
17.2.3 Self-Biased Stage 833
17.2.4 Biasing of PMOS Transistors 834
17.2.5 Realization of Current Sources 835
17.3 CMOS Amplifier Topologies 836
17.4 Common-Source Topology 837
17.4.1 CS Stage with Current-Source Load 842
17.4.2 CS Stage with Diode- Connected Load 843
17.4.3 CS Stage with Source Degeneration 844
17.4.4 Common-Gate Topology 856
17.4.5 Source Follower 867
17.5 Additional Examples 874
17.6 Chapter Summary 878
Problems 879
SPICE Problems 891
Appendix A Introduction To Spice A- 1
Index I- 1
