Summary of Research Examples
Preface
1 Scientific Thinking in Psychology
Why Take This Course?
Ways of Knowing
Authority
Use of Reason
Empiricism
The Ways of Knowing and Science
Science as a Way of Knowing
Science Assumes Determinism
Science Makes Systematic Observations
Science Produces Public Knowledge
Box 1.1: ORIGINS-A Taste of Introspection
Science Produces Data?]Based Conclusions
Science Produces Tentative Conclusions
Science Asks Answerable Questions
Science Develops Theories That Can Be Falsified
Psychological Science and Pseudoscience
Recognizing Pseudoscience
Associates with True Science
Box 1.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Falsifying Phrenology
Relies on Anecdotal Evidence
Sidesteps the Falsification Requirement
Reduce Complex Phenomena to Overly Simplistic Concepts
The Goals of Research in Psychology
Describe
Predict
Explain
Apply
A Passion for Research in Psychology
Eleanor Gibson (1910-2002)
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
2 Ethics in Psychological Research
Box 2.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-Infants at Risk
Developing a Code of Ethics for Psychological Science
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans
Weighing Benefits and Costs: The Role of the IRB
Informed Consent and Deception in Research
Box 2.2: ETHICS-Historical Problems with Informed Consent
Informed Consent and Special Populations
Use of Deception
Treating Participants Well
Research Ethics and the Internet
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals
Animal Rights
Box 2.3: ORIGINS-Antivivisection and the APA
Using Animals in Psychological Research
The APA Code for Animal Research
Justifying the Study
Caring for the Animals
Using Animals for Educational Purposes
Scientific Fraud
Data Falsification
3 Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology
Varieties of Psychological Research
The Goals: Basic versus Applied Research
The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research
Research Example 1-Combining Laboratory and Field Studies
The Data: Quantitative versus Qualitative Research
Asking Empirical Questions
Operational Definitions
Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity
Box 3.1: ORIGINS-Serendipity and Edge Detectors
Developing Research from Theory
The Nature of Theory
The Relationship between Theory and Research
Attributes of Good Theories
Falsification
Box 3.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Falsification and Der Kluge Hans
Parsimony
Common Misunderstandings about Theory
Developing Research from Other Research
Research Teams and the "What's Next?" Question
Research Example 2 - "What's Next?"
Replication
Box 3.3: ETHICS-Questionable Research Practices and Replication Remedies
Creative Thinking in Science
Reviewing the Literature
Computerized Database Searches
Search Tips
Search Results
4 Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing
Who to Measure-Sampling Procedures
Probability Sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
What to Measure-Varieties of Behavior
Developing Measures from Constructs
Research Example 3-Testing Constructs Using Habituation
Research Example 4-Testing Constructs Using Reaction Time
Box 4.1: ORIGINS-Reaction Time: From Mental Chronometry to Mental Rotation
Evaluating Measures
Reliability
Validity
Research Example 5-Construct Validity
Reliability and Validity
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Box 4.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Measuring Somatotypes on an Interval Scale: Hoping for 4-4-4
Ratio Scales
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Box 4.3: ETHICS-Statistics that Mislead
Inferential Statistics
Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
Type I and Type II Errors
Interpreting Failures to Reject H0
Beyond Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
Effect Size
Confidence Intervals
Power
5 Introduction to Experimental Research
Essential Features of Experimental Research
Box 5.1: ORIGINS-John Stuart Mill and the Rules of Inductive Logic
Establishing Independent Variables
Varieties of Manipulated Independent Variables
Control Groups
Research Example 6-Experimental and Control Groups
Controlling Extraneous Variables
Measuring Dependent Variables
Subject Variables
Research Example 7-Using Subject Variables
Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables
Box 5.2: CLASSIC STUDIES-Bobo Dolls and Aggression
The Validity of Experimental Research
Statistical Conclusion Validity
Construct Validity
External Validity
Other Populations
Box 5.3: ETHICS-Recruiting Participants: Everyone's in the Pool
Other Environments
Other Times
A Note of Caution about External Validity
Internal Validity
Threats to Internal Validity
Studies Extending Over Time
History and Maturation
Regression to the Mean
Testing and Instrumentation
Participant Problems
Subject Selection Effects
Attrition
A Final Note on Internal Validity, Confounding, and External Validity
6 Methodological Control in Experimental Research
Between?]Subjects Designs
Creating Equivalent Groups
Random Assignment
Matching
Within?]Subjects Designs
Controlling Order Effects
Testing Once per Condition
Complete Counterbalancing
Partial Counterbalancing
Testing More than Once per Condition
Reverse Counterbalancing
Block Randomization
Research Example 8-Counterbalancing with Block Randomization
Methodological Control in Developmental Research
Box 6.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-The Record for Repeated Measures
Controlling for the Effects of Bias
Experimenter Bias
Controlling for Experimenter Bias
Research Example 9-Using a Double Blind Procedure
Participant Bias
Box 6.2: ORIGINS-Productivity at Western Electric
Research Example 10-Demand Characteristics
Controlling for Participant Bias
Box 6.3: ETHICS-Research Participants Have Responsibilities Too
7 Experimental Design I: Single?]Factor Designs
Single Factor-Two Levels
Between?]Subjects, Single?]Factor Designs
Research Example 11-Two-Level Independent Groups Design
Research Example 12- Two-Level Matched Groups Design
Research Example 13- Two-Level Ex Post Facto Design
Within?]Subjects, Single?]Factor Designs
Box 7.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-Psychology's Most Widely Replicated Finding?
Research Example 14-Two-Level Repeated Measures Design
Single Factor-More Than Two Levels
Between?]Subjects, Multilevel Designs
Research Example 15-Multilevel Independent Groups Design
Within?]Subjects, Multilevel Designs
Research Example 16-Multilevel Repeated Measures Design
Analyzing Data from Single?]Factor Designs
Presenting the Data
Types of Graphs
Box 7.2: ORIGINS-The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Analyzing the Data
Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs
Statistics for Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs
Special?]Purpose Control Group Designs
Placebo Control Group Designs
Wait List Control Group Designs
Box 7.3: ETHICS-Who's in the Control Group?
Research Example 17-Using Both Placebo and Wait List Control Groups
Yoked Control Group Designs
Research Example 18-A Yoked Control Group
8 Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs
Essentials of Factorial Designs
Identifying Factorial Designs
Outcomes-Main Effects and Interactions
Main Effects
Research Example 19-Main Effects
Interactions
Research Example 20-An Interaction with No Main Effects
Interactions Sometimes Trump Main Effects
Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions
Creating Graphs for the Results of Factorial Designs
Box 8.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-To Sleep, Perchance to Recall
Varieties of Factorial Designs
Mixed Factorial Designs
Research Example 21-A Mixed Factorial with Counterbalancing
Research Example 22-A Mixed Factorial without Counterbalancing
Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P Ã E Designs
Research Example 23-A Factorial Design with a P Ã E Interaction
Research Example 24-A Mixed P Ã E Factorial with Two Main Effects
Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs
Box 8.2: ETHICS-On Being a Competent and Ethical Researcher
Analyzing Data from Factorial Designs
Box 8.3: ORIGINS-Factorials Down on the Farm
9 Non?]Experimental Design I: Survey Methods
Survey Research
Box 9.1: ORIGINS-Creating the "Questionary"
Sampling Issues in Survey Research
Surveys versus Psychological Assessment
Creating an Effective Survey
Types of Survey Questions or Statements
Assessing Memory and Knowledge
Adding Demographic Information
A Key Problem: Survey Wording
Collecting Survey Data
In-Person Interviews
Mailed Written Surveys
Phone Surveys
Online Surveys
Ethical Considerations
Box 9.2: ETHICS-Using and Abusing Surveys
Research Example 25-A Survey of College Students' Study Strategies
Analyzing Data from Non?]Experimental Methods
Correlation: Describing Relationships
Scatterplots
Correlation Coefficients
Coefficient of Determination
Be Aware of Outliers
Regression: Making Predictions
Research Example 26 - Regression and Multiple Regression
Interpreting Correlational Results
Directionality
Research Example 27-Correlations and Directionality
Third Variables
Combining Non?]Experimental and Experimental Methods
Research Example 28-Combining Methods
10 Non?]Experimental Design II: Observational and Archival Methods
Observational Research
Varieties of Observational Research
Naturalistic Observation
Participant Observation
Box 10.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-When Prophecy Fails
Challenges Facing Observational Methods
Absence of Control
Observer Bias
Participant Reactivity
Ethics
Box 10.2: ETHICS-A Matter of Privacy
Research Example 29-A Naturalistic Observation
Research Example 30-A Covert Participant Observation
Analyzing Qualitative Data from Non?]Experimental Designs
Archival Research
Archival Data
Research Example 31-A Non-Experimental Design
Using Archival Data
Analyzing Archival Data
Meta?]Analysis-A Special Case of Archival Research
Research Example 32-Meta-analysis and Psychology's First Registered Replication Report (RRR)
11 Quasi?]Experimental Designs and Applied Research
Beyond the Laboratory
Research Example 33-Applied Research
Applied Psychology in Historical Context
Box 11.1: CLASSIC STUDIES-The Hollingworth's, Applied Psychology, and Coca-Cola
Design Problems in Applied Research
Quasi?]Experimental Designs
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs
Outcomes
Regression to the Mean and Matching
Research Example 34-A Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Research Example 35-A Nonequivalent Control Group Design Without Pretests
Interrupted Time Series Designs
Outcomes
Research Example 36-An Interrupted Time Series Design
Variations on the Basic Time Series Design
Program Evaluation
Box 11.2: ORIGINS-Reforms as Experiments
Planning for Programs-Needs Analysis
Research Example 37-Assessing Need in Program Evaluation
Monitoring Programs-Formative Evaluation
Evaluating Outcomes-Summative Evaluation
Weighing Costs-Cost?]Effectiveness Analysis
A Note on Qualitative Data Analysis
Box 11.3: ETHICS-Evaluation Research and Ethics
12 Small N Designs
Research in Psychology Began with Small N
Box 12.1: ORIGINS-Cats in Puzzle Boxes
Reasons for Small N Designs
Occasional Misleading Results from Statistical Summaries of Grouped Data
Practical and Philosophical Problems with Large N Designs
The Experimental Analysis of Behavior
Applied Behavior Analysis
Box 12.2: ETHICS-Controlling Human Behavior
Small N Designs in Applied Behavior Analysis
Elements of Single?]Subject Designs
Withdrawal Designs
Research Example 38-An A-B-A-B Design
Multiple Baseline Designs
Research Example 39-A Multiple Baseline Design
Changing Criterion Designs
Research Example 40-A Changing Criterion Design
Alternating Treatments Designs
Research Example 41-An Alternating Treatments Design
Evaluating Single?]Subject Designs
Case Study Designs
Research Example 42-A Case Study
Box 12.3: CLASSIC STUDIES-The Mind of a Mnemonist
Evaluating Case Studies
Epilogue: What I Learned in My Research Methods Course
Appendix A Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology
Research Reports and APA-Style
General Guidelines
Writing Style
Using Numbers
Reducing Bias in Language
Avoiding Plagiarism
Main Sections of the Research Report
Presentations and Posters
Tips for Presenting a Paper
Tips for Presenting a Poster
Appendix B Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Applications Exercises
Chapter 1. Scientific Thinking in Psychology
Chapter 2. Ethics in Psychological Research
Chapter 3. Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology
Chapter 4. Sampling, Measurement, and Hypothesis Testing
Chapter 5. Introduction to Experimental Research
Chapter 6. Methodological Control in Experimental Research
Chapter 7. Experimental Design I: Single?]Factor Designs
Chapter 8. Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs
Chapter 9. Non?]Experimental Design I: Survey Methods
Chapter 10. Non?]Experimental Design II: Observational and Archival Methods
Chapter 11. Quasi?]Experimental Designs and Applied Research
Chapter 12. Small N Designs
Appendix A. Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology
Glossary
References
Index
