Preface xiii
Symbols and Acronyms xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Historical Development of Wireless Communications 1
1.2 Information 4
1.3 Wired Communications 7
1.4 Spectrum 9
1.5 Communication System 12
Problems 13
References 15
2 Signals and Bits 17
2.1 Analog Baseband Signals 17
2.2 Digital Baseband Signals 21
2.3 Source Coding 22
2.4 Line Coding 26
2.5 Bandwidth 27
2.6 Signal Level 28
2.7 Noise and Interference 29
2.8 Converting Analog to Digital 36
2.9 Channel Coding 39
2.10 Repetition 40
2.11 Parity Bits 40
2.12 Redundancy Checking 42
2.13 Error Correcting Codes (ECC) 45
2.13.1 Block Codes 45
2.13.2 Convolutional Codes 47
2.14 Interleaving 48
2.15 Eye Diagram 50
2.16 Intersymbol Interference 51
2.17 Raised-Cosine Filter 54
2.18 Equalization 57
Problems 62
References 67
3 Passband Signals 71
3.1 Carrier 71
3.2 Amplitude-Modulated Signals 72
3.3 Frequency-Modulated Signals 80
3.4 Phase-Modulated Signals 84
3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 90
3.6 Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals 92
3.7 BER of Digital Signals 94
3.8 Multiplexing in Time and Frequency 94
3.8.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing 95
3.8.2 Time Division Multiplexing 96
3.8.3 Multiple Access 97
3.9 Spread Spectrum 100
3.9.1 Interference 101
3.9.2 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum 101
3.9.3 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum 103
3.9.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 104
Problems 106
References 109
4 Antennas 111
4.1 Signal Properties that Influence Antenna Design 111
4.1.1 Impedance 111
4.1.2 Gain 112
4.1.3 Polarization 113
4.1.4 Bandwidth 115
4.2 Common Antennas 116
4.2.1 Point Sources 116
4.2.2 Wire Antennas 117
4.2.3 Aperture Antennas 125
4.2.4 Microstrip Antennas 128
4.3 Antenna Arrays 130
4.3.1 Element Placement 131
4.3.1.1 Linear Array 131
4.3.1.2 Arbitrary Array Layouts 134
4.4 Electronic Beam Steering 136
4.5 Element Pattern 137
4.6 Low Sidelobes 138
4.7 Moving a Null to Reject Interference 140
4.8 Null Filling 142
4.9 Multiple Beams 144
4.10 Antennas for Wireless Applications 146
4.10.1 Handset Antennas 146
4.10.2 Cellular Base Station Antennas 151
4.10.3 Reflector Antennas 156
4.10.4 Antennas for Microwave Links 159
4.11 Diversity 162
4.11.1 Spatial Diversity 162
4.11.2 Frequency Diversity 165
4.11.3 Polarization Diversity 165
4.11.4 Time Diversity 166
Problems 166
References 170
5 Propagation in the Channel 173
5.1 Free Space Propagation 174
5.2 Reflection and Refraction 175
5.3 Multipath 179
5.4 Antennas over the Earth 181
5.5 Earth Surface 186
5.6 Diffraction 190
5.6.1 Fresnel Diffraction 190
5.6.2 Diffraction from Multiple Obstacles 194
5.6.3 Geometrical Theory of Diffraction 198
5.7 Signal Fading 202
5.7.1 Small-Scale Fading Models 205
5.7.1.1 Rayleigh Fading 205
5.7.1.2 Rician Fading 209
5.7.2 Approximate Channel Models 212
5.7.3 Large-Scale Fading 214
5.7.4 Channel Ray-Tracing Models 217
5.8 Doppler Effects 219
5.9 Fade Margin 223
5.10 Atmospheric Propagation 224
Problems 234
References 238
6 Satellite Communications 241
6.1 Early Development of Satellite Communications 241
6.2 Satellite Orbits 245
6.3 Satellite Link Budget 254
6.4 Bent Pipe Architecture 259
6.5 Multiple Beams 259
6.6 Stabilization 261
Problems 262
References 263
7 RFID 267
7.1 Historical Development 267
7.2 RFID System Overview 270
7.3 Tag Data 273
7.4 Tag Classes 274
7.4.1 Passive Tags 274
7.4.2 Tags with Batteries or Supercapacitors 277
7.4.2.1 Semi-Passive Tags 277
7.4.2.2 Active Tags 278
7.5 Data Encoding and Modulation 279
7.6 Reader-Tag Communication 281
7.6.1 Near Field 281
7.6.2 Far Field 285
7.6.2.1 Multiple Readers in an Interrogation Zone 285
7.6.2.2 Backscatter Communication 288
7.6.2.3 Chipless Tags 293
Problems 295
References 296
8 Direction Finding 301
8.1 Direction Finding with a Main Beam 301
8.1.1 Array Output Power 302
8.1.2 Periodogram 304
8.1.3 Wullenweber Array 305
8.2 Direction Finding with a Null 307
8.3 Adcock Arrays 308
8.4 Eigenbeams 310
8.5 Direction Finding Algorithms 313
8.5.1 Capon's Minimum Variance 313
8.5.2 Pisarenko Harmonic Decomposition 315
8.5.3 MUSIC Algorithm 316
8.5.4 Root MUSIC 317
8.5.5 Maximum Entropy Method 318
8.5.6 ESPRIT 319
8.5.7 Estimating and Finding Sources 321
Problems 322
References 322
9 Adaptive Arrays 325
9.1 The Need for Adaptive Nulling 325
9.2 Beam Cancellation 327
9.3 Optimum Weights 328
9.4 Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm 329
9.5 Sample Matrix Inversion Algorithm 332
9.6 Adaptive Algorithms Based on Power Minimization 334
9.6.1 Random Search Algorithms 335
9.6.2 Output Power Minimization Algorithms 338
9.6.3 Beam Switching 340
9.6.4 Reconfigurable Antennas 340
Problems 342
References 342
10 MIMO 345
10.1 Types of MIMO 345
10.2 The Channel Matrix 349
10.3 Recovering the Transmitted Signal Using the Channel Matrix 352
10.3.1 CSIR and CSIT 352
10.3.2 Waterfilling Algorithm 356
10.3.3 CSIR and No CSIT 360
Problems 361
References 362
11 Security 365
11.1 Wireless Networks 365
11.1.1 Addresses on a Network 365
11.1.2 Types of Wireless Local Area Networks 367
11.1.3 WLAN Examples 370
11.2 Threats 373
11.3 Securing Data 376
11.3.1 Cryptography 376
11.3.2 Secret Key Cryptography 379
11.3.3 Public Key Cryptography 379
11.3.4 Hashing 380
11.4 Defenses 381
Problems 384
References 385
12 Biological Effects of RF Fields 389
12.1 RF Heating 389
12.2 RF Dosimetry 393
12.3 RF Radiation Hazards 396
12.3.1 Base Stations 397
12.3.2 Cell Phones 397
12.3.3 Medical Tests 397
12.4 Modeling RF Interactions with Humans 398
12.5 Harmful Effects of RF Radiation 400
Problems 400
References 401
Appendix A MATLAB Tips 405
A.1 Introduction 405
A.2 Plotting Hint 406
Appendix B OSI Layers 407
B.1 Layer 1: Physical 407
B.2 Layer 2: Data Link 407
B.3 Layer 3: Network 407
B.4 Layer 4: Transport 408
B.5 Layer 5: Session 408
B.6 Layer 6: Presentation 408
B.7 Layer 7: Application 409
Appendix C Cellular Generations 411
References 412
Appendix D Bluetooth 413
References 414
Appendix E Wi-Fi 415
References 416
Appendix F Software-Defined Radios 419
F.1 SDR Basics 419
F.2 SDR Hardware 421
F.3 SDR Software 422
F.4 Cognitive Radio 423
References 423
Index 425
