1 Introducing Environmental Science and Sustainability 1
Human Impacts on the Environment 1
Increasing Human Numbers 2
Development, Environment, and Sustainability 3
Population, Resources, and the Environment 4
Types of Resources 4
Resource Consumption 5
Ecological Footprint 6
The IPAT Model 6
Sustainability 8
Sustainability and the Tragedy of the Commons 9
Global Plans for Sustainable Development 9
Environmental Science 10
Earth Systems and Environmental Science 11
Science as a Process 11
Addressing Environmental Problems 15
Addressing Environmental Problems 15
Environmental Science in Practice: Lake Washington 16
2 Environmental Laws, Economics, and Ethics 21
A Brief Environmental History of the United States 21
Protecting Forests 22
Establishing and Protecting National Parks and Monuments 22
Conservation in the Mid-20th Century 23
The Environmental Movement of the Late 20th Century 24
U.S. Environmental Legislation 26
Environmental Policy Since 1970 27
Economics and the Environment 29
Strategies for Pollution Control 31
Critiques of Environmental Economics 32
Natural Resources, the Environment, and National Income Accounts 32
Environmental Ethics, Values, and Worldviews 34
Environmental Ethics 34
Environmental Worldviews 35
Environmental Justice 36
3 Ecosystems and Energy 41
What Is Ecology? 42
The Energy of Life 44
The First Law of Thermodynamics 45
The Second Law of Thermodynamics 46
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration 46
Case in Point Life Without the Sun 47
The Flow of Energy through Ecosystems 48
Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers 48
The Path of Energy Flow: Who Eats Whom in Ecosystems 49
Case in Point How Humans Have Affected the Antarctic Food Web 51
Ecological Pyramids 52
Ecosystem Productivity 53
Human Impact on Net Primary Productivity 54
4 Ecosystems and the Physical Environment 57
The Cycling of Materials within Ecosystems 57
The Carbon Cycle 58
The Nitrogen Cycle 60
The Phosphorus Cycle 61
The Sulfur Cycle 64
The Hydrologic Cycle 65
Solar Radiation 66
Temperature Changes with Latitude 67
Temperature Changes with the Seasons 68
The Atmosphere 68
Layers of the Atmosphere 68
Atmospheric Circulation 69
The Global Ocean 71
Patterns of Circulation in the Ocean 71
Vertical Mixing of Ocean Water 72
Ocean Interactions with the Atmosphere 73
Weather and Climate 75
Precipitation 75
Tornadoes 76
Tropical Cyclones 78
Case in Point Hurricane Katrina 79
Internal Planetary Processes 79
Earthquakes 80
Volcanoes 81
5 Ecosystems and Living Organisms 85
Evolution: How Populations Change Over Time 85
Natural Selection 86
Modern Synthesis 86
Evolution of Biological Diversity: The Organization of Life 87
Principles of Population Ecology 89
Population Density 90
How Do Populations Change in Size? 90
Maximum Population Growth 91
Environmental Resistance and Carrying Capacity 91
Factors that Affect Population Size 93
Reproductive Strategies 94
Survivorship 95
Metapopulations 95
Biological Communities 96
The Ecological Niche 97
Competition 98
Symbiosis 99
Predation 102
Keystone Species 103
Species Richness in a Community 104
Species Richness, Ecosystem Services, and Community Stability 105
Case in Point Gardens as Ecosystems 106
Community Development 106
Primary Succession 107
Secondary Succession 108
6 Major Ecosystems of the World 113
Earth's Major Biomes 113
Tundra: Cold Boggy Plains of the Far North 114
Boreal Forests: Conifer Forests of the North 116
Temperate Rain Forests: Lush Temperate Forests 117
Temperate Deciduous Forests: Trees That Shed Their Leaves 118
Grasslands: Temperate Seas of Grass 118
Chaparral: Thickets of Evergreen Shrubs and Small Trees 119
Deserts: Arid Life Zones 120
Savanna: Tropical Grasslands 121
Tropical Rain Forests: Lush Equatorial Forests 122
Vertical Zonation: The Distribution of Vegetation on Mountains 123
Aquatic Ecosystems 124
Freshwater Ecosystems 124
Case in Point The Everglades 128
Estuaries: Where Fresh Water and Salt Water Meet 129
Marine Ecosystems 130
7 Human Health and Environmental Toxicology 140
Human Health 140
Health Issues in Highly Developed Countries 141
Health Issues in Developing Countries 142
Emerging and Reemerging Diseases 142
Influenza Pandemics Past and Future 144
Environmental Pollution and Disease 144
Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological Magnification of Environmental Contaminants 145
Endocrine Disrupters 147
Determining Health Effects of Environmental Pollution 148
Identifying Toxic Substances 149
Children and Chemical Exposure 151
Decision Making and Uncertainty: Assessment of Risks 152
Risk Information as a Decision Tool 153
Ecological Risk Assessment 156
Ecological Risk Assessment and Ecotoxicology 157
Case in Point The Ocean and Human Health 158
8 The Human Population 161
The Science of Demography 161
Current and Future Population Numbers 162
Human Migration 163
Demographics of Countries 163
Demographic Stages 164
Age Structure 166
Population and Quality of Life 168
Case in Point Coping with AIDS in Africa 169
Population and Chronic Hunger 169
Economic Effects of Continued Population Growth 170
Reducing the Total Fertility Rate 170
Culture and Fertility 171
The Social and Economic Status of Women 171
Family Planning Services 173
Government Policies, Fertility, and Poverty 173
China and Mexico: Contrasting Population Growth Measures 174
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 175
9 The Urban Environment 179
Population and Urbanization 179
Characteristics of the Urban Population 180
Urbanization Trends 180
The City as an Ecosystem 183
Long-Term Study of Urban Ecosystems 184
Environmental Problems Associated with Urban Areas 185
Environmental Benefits of Urbanization 187
Urban Land-Use Planning 187
Transportation and Urban Development 188
Suburban Sprawl 189
Making Cities More Sustainable 190
Case in Point Curitiba, Brazil 192
10 Energy Consumption 196
Energy Consumption and Policy 196
Energy Consumption 197
Energy Efficiency and Conservation 199
Energy Efficiency 200
Energy Conservation 205
Electricity, Hydrogen, and Energy Storage 205
Electricity 206
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 206
Energy Storage 208
Energy Policy 210
Four Energy Policy Objectives 210
Climate Energy Policy and Climate Change 211
11 Fossil Fuels 214
Fossil Fuels 215
How Fossil Fuels Formed 215
Fossil Fuels, the Carbon Cycle, and Climate 216
Coal 216
Coal Reserves 217
Coal Mining 217
Safety Problems Associated with Coal 218
Environmental Impacts of the Mining Process 218
Environmental Impacts of Burning Coal 218
Making Coal a Cleaner Fuel 219
Coal and Carbon Dioxide Emissions 220
Oil and Natural Gas Extraction and Consumption 221
Sources and Uses of Oil and Natural Gas Resources 221
Oil and Natural Gas Extraction and Consumption 223
Environmental Impacts of Oil and Natural Gas 226
Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 227
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill 228
The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 229
Synfuels and Other Potential Fossil-Fuel Resources 229
Environmental Impacts of Synfuels 231
12 Renewable Energy and Nuclear Power 234
Direct Solar Energy 234
Heating Buildings and Water 235
Solar Thermal Electricity Generation 237
Photovoltaics 238
Indirect Solar Energy 239
Energy From Biomass 239
Wind Energy 240
Hydropower 242
Case in Point The Three Gorges Dam 243
Other Uses of Indirect Solar Energy 243
Other Renewable Energy Sources 244
Geothermal Energy 244
Tidal Energy 245
Nuclear Energy 246
Pros and Cons of Nuclear Energy 247
Nuclear Power Plant Safety and Radioactive Waste 249
Case in Point Yucca Mountain 251
13 Water: A Limited Resource 255
The Importance of Water 255
Properties of Water 256
The Hydrologic Cycle and Our Supply of Fresh Water 256
Water Use and Resource Problems 259
Too Much Water 259
Case in Point Flood Control on the Mississippi River 260
Too Little Water 261
Water Problems in the United States and Canada 262
Surface Water 263
Groundwater 265
Global Water Problems 266
Water and Climate Change 267
Drinking-Water Problems 267
Population Growth and Water Problems 267
Sharing Water Resources Among Countries 268
Water Management 271
Providing a Sustainable Water Supply 271
Water Conservation 274
Reducing Agricultural Water Waste 274
Reducing Industrial Water Waste 275
Reducing Municipal Water Waste 275
14 Soil Resources 280
The Soil System 280
State Factors: Soil-Forming Factors 281
Soil Composition 281
Soil Horizons 283
Soil Organisms 283
Nutrient Cycling 284
Soil Properties and Major Soil Types 285
Soil Acidity 286
Major Soil Groups 286
Environmental Problems Related to Soil 288
Soil Erosion 288
Case in Point The American Dust Bowl 289
Nutrient Mineral Depletion 290
Soil Salinization 291
Desertification 291
Soil Conservation and Regeneration 292
Conservation Tillage 292
Crop Rotation 293
Contour Plowing, Strip Cropping, and Terracing 293
Preserving Soil Fertility 293
Soil Reclamation 294
Agroforestry 295
Soil Conservation Policies in the United States 296
15 Mineral Resources 299
Introduction to Minerals 299
Mineral Distribution and Formation 301
How Minerals are Found, Extracted, and Processed 301
Environmental Impacts Associated with Minerals 304
Mining and the Environment 304
Environmental Impacts of Refining Minerals 305
Case in Point Copper Basin, Tennessee 306
Restoration of Mining Lands 307
Minerals: An International Perspective 308
Worldwide Mineral Production and Consumption 308
Mineral Distribution Versus Consumption 309
Evaluating Our Mineral Supplies 309
Increasing the Supply of Minerals 310
Locating and Mining New Deposits 310
Minerals in Antarctica 310
Minerals from the Ocean 311
Advanced Mining and Processing Technologies 311
Using Substitution and Conservation to Expand Mineral Supplies 312
Finding Mineral Substitutes 312
Mineral Conservation 313
16 Biological Resources 318
Biological Diversity 318
Why We Need Organisms 319
Extinction and Species Endangerment 321
Endangered and Threatened Species 322
Where is Declining Biological Diversity the Greatest Problem? 324
Human Causes of Species Endangerment 325
Case in Point Disappearing Frogs 329
Conservation Biology 330
In Situ Conservation: Protecting Habitats 330
Restoring Damaged or Destroyed Habitats 331
Zoos, Aquaria, Botanical Gardens, and Seed Banks 332
Conservation Organizations 334
Conservation Policies and Laws 335
Habitat Conservation Plans 336
International Conservation Policies and Laws 336
Wildlife Management 336
Management of Migratory Animals 337
Management of Aquatic Organisms 337
17 Land Resources 341
Land Use 341
World Land Use 342
Land Use in the United States 342
Wilderness, Parks, and Wildlife Refuges 344
National Parks 345
Wildlife Refuges 346
Forests 346
Forest Management 347
Deforestation 349
Forest Trends in the United States 349
Case in Point Tongass National Forest 350
Trends in Tropical Forests 351
Boreal Forests and Deforestation 353
Rangelands and Agricultural Lands 353
Rangeland Degradation and Desertification 354
Rangeland Trends in the United States 355
Agricultural Lands 355
Wetlands and Coastal Areas 356
Coastlines 357
Conservation of Land Resources 359
18 Food Resources 362
World Food Security 362
Famines 363
Maintaining Grain Stocks 363
Economics, Politics, and Food Security 364
Poverty and Food 364
Food Production 365
Sources of Food 365
The Main Types of Agriculture 366
Challenges of Producing More Crops and Livestock 368
The Effect of Domestication on Genetic Diversity 368
The Global Decline in Domesticated Plant and Animal Varieties 369
Case in Point Grow Appalachia 370
Supplements for Livestock 371
Genetic Modification 371
The Environmental Impacts of Agriculture 374
Solutions to Agricultural Problems 375
Fisheries of the World 377
Problems and Challenges for the Fishing Industry 377
Aquaculture: Fish Farming 379
19 Air Pollution 383
Types and Sources of Air Pollution 383
Major Classes of Air Pollutants 384
Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution 387
Urban Air Pollution 387
Case in Point Efforts to Reduce Ozone in Southern California 388
Effects of Air Pollution 389
Air Pollution and Human Health 390
Controlling Air Pollution in the United States 391
Controlling Air Pollutants 391
The Clean Air Act 393
Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere 394
Stratospheric Ozone Thinning 395
The Effects of Ozone Depletion 396
Facilitating the Recovery of the Ozone Layer 396
Acid Deposition 397
How Acid Deposition Develops 397
The Effects of Acid Deposition 398
Managing Acid Deposition 400
Air Pollution around the World 401
Air Pollution in Developing Countries 401
Case in Point Air Pollution in Beijing, New Delhi, and Mexico City 401
Long-Distance Transport of Air Pollution 402
Indoor Air Pollution 403
Sources and Effects of Indoor Air Pollution 403
Tobacco Smoke and Radon 404
20 Global Climate Change 409
Introduction to Climate Change 409
The Causes of Global Climate Change 410
Pollutants that Cool the Atmosphere 412
Modeling the Future Climate 413
Unpredictable and Extreme Climate Change 414
The Effects of Global Climate Change 415
Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels 415
Case in Point Impacts in Fragile Areas 416
Changes in Precipitation Patterns 417
Effects on Organisms 417
Effects on Human Health 419
Effects on Agriculture 420
International Implications of Global Climate Change 421
Links Among Global Climate Change, Ozone Depletion, and Acid Deposition 421
Dealing with Global Climate Change 422
Mitigation of Global Climate Change 423
Adaptation to Global Climate Change 424
International Efforts to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions 424
21 Water Pollution 427
Types of Water Pollution 427
Sewage 428
Disease-Causing Agents 429
Sediment Pollution 431
Inorganic Plant and Algal Nutrients 432
Organic Compounds 432
Inorganic Chemicals 434
Radioactive Substances 435
Thermal Pollution 435
Water Quality Today 436
Water Pollution from Agriculture 437
Municipal Water Pollution 437
Industrial Wastes in Water 438
Case in Point Green Chemistry 438
Groundwater Pollution 439
Water Pollution in Other Countries 441
Improving Water Quality 442
Purification of Drinking Water 442
Municipal Sewage Treatment 444
Individual Septic Systems 445
Alternative Wastewater Treatment Systems 446
Laws Controlling Water Pollution 446
Safe Drinking Water Act 446
Clean Water Act 447
Laws that Protect Groundwater 448
22 Pest Management 450
What Is a Pesticide? 450
First-Generation and Second-Generation Pesticides 451
The Major Groups of Insecticides 452
The Major Kinds of Herbicides 452
Benefits and Problems with Pesticides 452
Benefit: Disease Control 453
Benefit: Crop Protection 453
Problem: Evolution of Genetic Resistance 454
Problem: Imbalances in the Ecosystem 455
Problems: Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological Magnification 455
Problem: Mobility in the Environment 456
Risks of Pesticides to Human Health 457
Short-Term Effects of Pesticides 457
Long-Term Effects of Pesticides 457
Pesticides as Endocrine Disrupters 458
Alternatives to Pesticides 459
Using Cultivation Methods to Control Pests 459
Biological Controls 459
Pheromones and Hormones 460
Reproductive Controls 460
Genetic Controls 461
Case in Point BT, Its Potential and Problems 461
Quarantine 461
The Systems Approach: Integrated Pest Management 462
Irradiating Foods 463
Laws Controlling Pesticide Use 463
Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act 464
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 464
Food Quality Protection Act 464
The Manufacture and Use of Banned Pesticides 465
Importation of Food Tainted with Banned Pesticides 465
Global Ban on Persistent Organic Pollutants 465
23 Solid and Hazardous Wastes 469
Solid Waste 469
Types of Solid Waste 470
Open Dumps 470
Sanitary Landfills 470
Incineration 472
Composting 474
Waste Prevention 475
Case in Point Drinking Water on College Campuses 475
Reducing the Amount of Waste: Source Reduction 475
Reusing Products 476
Recycling Materials 477
Integrated Waste Management 479
Hazardous Waste 480
Types of Hazardous Waste 481
Case in Point Hanford Nuclear Reservation 482
Management of Hazardous Waste 483
24 Tomorrow's World 489
Living Sustainably 489
Sustainable Living: A Plan of Action 490
Recommendation 1: Eliminate Poverty and Stabilize the Human Population 491
Recommendation 2: Protect and Restore Earth's Resources 493
Recommendation 3: Provide Adequate Food for all People 495
Recommendation 4: Mitigate Climate Change 496
Recommendation 5: Design Sustainable Cities 497
Case in Point Durban, South Africa 498
Changing Personal Attitudes and Practices 499
The Role of Education 499
What Kind of World Do We Want? 500
Appendices 503
Glossary 516
Index I-1
