About the Author xiii
Acknowledgement xv
1. Water and Cities 1
The Molecule 1
Blue Planet 1
A Global Water Cycle 2
Terrain and Water 2
Seasons and Cycles 4
Variations in Rainfall 4
Changing Climates 5
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide 5
Fossil Fuels and Growth 6
The Ancients and Water 6
Dams 7
Limits 7
Sanitation 9
Pollution 9
Urban Drainage 10
Potable Water 12
Waste 12
Rainwater Harvesting 13
Recycling 14
Biodiversity 14
Restoration 15
The Future 16
Privatization and Regulation 16
Coordination and Cooperation 17
Towards a Better Future 18
2. A Brief History of Water Supply and Sanitation 19
Genesis 19
Bronze Age 20
The First Aqueducts 20
Nineveh 21
The Nile 21
The Minoans 22
Pompeii 23
Byzantium 24
Yucatan 24
The Incas 25
Qi 26
Lijiang 26
Medieval and Early Modern Europe 26
Early Victorian Period 27
Germ Theory 27
The Great Stink 28
Modern Sewers and Sewage Treatment 28
Sewage Treatment Refined 29
Standards for Sewage Treatment 29
Birmingham Corporation Water Act 1892 30
Los Angeles and the Owens Valley 30
3. Demand 33
Basic Needs 33
Personal Consumption 34
Water Footprint 35
Dependency 36
China 36
Germany 36
India 37
Indonesia 37
Spain 38
United Kingdom 38
Water Footprint of Products 38
Meat 39
Vegetable Crops 39
Power Plants 40
Steel 41
Mining, Oil and Gas 42
When Will Water Consumption Peak? 42
4. Supply 43
The Roof of the World 43
Mountains 44
Forests 45
Reservoirs 46
Impacts of Dams 46
Lowland Rivers 47
Licensing Abstraction 48
Aquifers 48
Nitrate 49
Overabstraction 49
Desalination 50
Reverse Osmosis 50
Impacts of Desalination 51
High Cost of Desalination 51
Rainwater Harvesting 51
Pressure and Pumps 52
Pipework 52
Reliant on Rain 53
5. Climate Change and Water 55
Climate Changes 55
The Greenhouse Effect 55
Callendar 56
Keeling 57
Atmosphere and Oceans 57
Details of the Carbon Cycle 57
The IPCC 58
Stern and the Financial Crisis 58
400 ppm Breached 59
Two Degrees 59
Sea Level Rises 60
Coastal Cities 61
Warmer Seas 62
Ice 62
Feedback Loops 62
Ocean Chemistry 63
Snowmelt 63
Models and Projections 65
Summer Storms 66
Heat Waves 66
Drought 66
6. Microclimate 69
Climate 69
Microclimate 69
City Microclimates 70
Urban Heat¿Island Effect 70
Smog 70
Solving the Air¿Pollution Problem 71
Cooler Roofs 72
Living Walls 73
Trees Cool Streets 74
Parks 75
Quality of Green Space 75
Locating Trees 76
Water Bodies 76
Rivers 76
Heat¿Related Deaths 77
Energy Savings 78
An Overwhelming Case 79
7. Ecosystem Approach 81
The Great Acceleration 81
The Convention on Biological Diversity 81
Ecosystem Approach 82
Ecosystems 82
Principles of the Ecosystem Approach 83
Operational Guidance 85
Ecosystem Approach and the Water¿Sensitive City 87
Impacts and Responsibilities 88
Limits 88
City¿Scale Planning 89
The City Spectrum 89
Ecosystem Services 89
Valuation of Ecosystem Services 90
Supporting Services 91
Regulating Services 91
Provisioning Services 91
Cultural Services 92
Economics and Ecosystems 92
8. Rivers and Coasts 95
The Source 95
A River of Life 95
Transport Revolution 96
Regeneration 96
Water Quality and Regeneration 97
The Idea Spreads 97
A More Natural Approach 98
River Restoration and Urban Regeneration 99
Greening the River Wall 99
Coastal Cities 100
Beach Life 101
Fun in the Sun 101
The Front Line 102
An Uncertain Future 103
9. Near¿Natural Drainage 105
Rain¿Garden Origins 105
Scotland Takes Up the Challenge 106
England & Wales 106
Working with Nature 106
Management Train 107
Source Control 108
Green Roofs 108
Holding Water on the Roof 109
Rain Gardens 110
The Idea Spreads 111
Other Permeable Load¿Bearing Surfaces 112
Underground Voids 113
Trees and Water 114
Stockholm Tree Pits 115
Conveyance 115
Rills 116
Ponds 116
Detention Ponds 116
Attenuation Ponds 117
Floating Wetlands 117
Larger Water Bodies 118
Make Space for Water 119
10. Reduce 121
A Worthwhile Effort 121
Reduce Leaks 121
Monitor 122
Check for Leaks 123
Less Flush 123
Toilets are Not for Trash 123
Composting Toilets 124
Showers 124
Washing Machines 124
Dishwashers 125
Garden Irrigation 125
The Workplace 126
Behaviour Change 126
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning 126
Vehicle Washing 127
Urban Farming and Recycled Water 128
Diet and Water 128
Soft Drinks 128
Clothing 129
Reduction Targets 129
11. Collect 131
Reduce Reliance on Abstraction 131
When Sealed Surfaces are Useful 131
Rainwater Harvesting 132
How Rainwater is Tainted 132
First Flush 133
Novel Methods 133
Filters and Tanks 134
Siting a Tank 134
Materials 135
Treating Rainwater 135
Sizing Tanks 136
City Centre Rainwater Harvesting 137
Potsdamer Platz 137
District Collection 138
Singapore Wants Every Drop 138
Legal Problems 139
Dew 140
Lanzarote 140
Air Wells 140
Lightweight Fog Catchers 141
Foil Collectors 141
Biomimicry: Desert Beetle 142
Potential in Towns 142
Condensate 142
Collecting Alone is Insufficient 143
12. Recycle 145
Huge Potential 145
Treated Wastewater 146
The Big Dry 146
Greywater 146
Treating Greywater 147
Microbes and Membranes 148
Regulations 148
Standards 149
German Pioneers 150
Jordan 150
Domestic Greywater Recycling 151
13. Water Quality 153
Nature Cleans 153
Safe to Drink? 153
Microbes 154
Which Pathogens to Monitor? 156
Bacteria 156
Protozoa 157
Treatment 157
Chemical Contaminants 159
Nitrates 159
Pharmaceutical Contaminants 161
Radioactive Substances 161
Smell and Taste 161
Standards 162
United States 162
Europe 162
China 163
Clean Water Act 163
Water Framework Directive 164
Earlier Legislation 165
The Struggle for Compliance 165
Nonpoint Source Pollution 165
Dust in the Streets 166
Urban Runoff 166
A Continuing Problem 166
14. Future Water¿Sensitive Cities 169
Waste Not 169
Measure 170
Water Collection 170
Recycling and Cooling 170
Smart Plumbing 171
Water and Power 171
Water and Roofs 172
Water and Walls 173
Blue¿Green Infrastructure 173
Making Room 175
A More Permeable City 175
Green Streets 175
Street Life 175
Sparkling Streets 177
Urban Food Revolution 177
Urban Farms 177
Agricultural Reform 178
Relax and Play 178
Swimming and Boating 178
Encounters with Nature 179
Rediscovering Urban Waterways 179
A Greener Looking City 180
Living with Climate Change 180
Tough Decisions 181
Younger and Wiser 181
Hope 182
Useful Resources 183
Notes 191
Index 207
