FOREWORD xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxi
CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
PART ONE INTRODUCTION 1
1 Development of Adaptive Optics in Vision Science and Ophthalmology 3
David R. Williams and Jason Porter
1.1 Brief History of Aberration Correction in the Human Eye 3
1.1.1 Vision Correction 3
1.1.2 Retinal Imaging 5
1.2 Applications of Ocular Adaptive Optics 9
1.2.1 Vision Correction 9
1.2.2 Retinal Imaging 11
PART TWO WAVEFRONT MEASUREMENT AND CORRECTION 31
2 Aberration Structure of the Human Eye 33
Pablo Artal, Juan M. Bueno, Antonio Guirao, and Pedro M. Prieto
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Location of Monochromatic Aberrations Within the Eye 34
2.3 Temporal Properties of Aberrations: Accommodation and Aging 40
2.3.1 Effect of Accommodation on Aberrations and Their Correction 40
2.3.2 Aging and Aberrations 42
2.4 Chromatic Aberrations 43
2.4.1 Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration 44
2.4.2 Transverse Chromatic Aberration 45
2.4.3 Interaction Between Monochromatic and Chromatic Aberrations 45
2.5 Off-Axis Aberrations 46
2.5.1 Peripheral Refraction 47
2.5.2 Monochromatic and Chromatic Off-Axis Aberrations 48
2.5.3 Monochromatic Image Quality and Correction of Off-Axis Aberrations 51
2.6 Statistics of Aberrations in Normal Populations 52
2.7 Effects of Polarization and Scatter 53
2.7.1 Impact of Polarization on the Ocular Aberrations 53
2.7.2 Intraocular Scatter 55
3 Wavefront Sensing and Diagnostic Uses 63
Geunyoung Yoon
3.1 Wavefront Sensors for the Eye 63
3.1.1 Spatially Resolved Refractometer 65
3.1.2 Laser Ray Tracing 65
3.1.3 Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor 66
3.2 Optimizing a Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor 68
3.2.1 Number of Lenslets Versus Number of Zernike Coefficients 68
3.2.2 Trade-off Between Dynamic Range and Measurement Sensitivity 71
3.2.3 Focal Length of the Lenslet Array 73
3.2.4 Increasing the Dynamic Range of a Wavefront Sensor Without Losing Measurement Sensitivity 74
3.3 Calibration of a Wavefront Sensor 75
3.3.1 Reconstruction Algorithm 76
3.3.2 System Aberrations 77
3.4 Summary 79
4 Wavefront Correctors for Vision Science 83
Nathan Doble and Donald T. Miller
4.1 Introduction 83
4.2 Principal Components of an AO System 84
4.3 Wavefront Correctors 86
4.4 Wavefront Correctors Used in Vision Science 88
4.4.1 Macroscopic Discrete Actuator Deformable Mirrors 89
4.4.2 Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulators 90
4.4.3 Bimorph Mirrors 91
4.4.4 Microelectromechanical Systems 92
4.5 Performance Predictions for Various Types of Wavefront Correctors 95
4.5.1 Description of Two Large Populations 98
4.5.2 Required Corrector Stroke 99
4.5.3 Discrete Actuator Deformable Mirrors 101
4.5.4 Piston-Only Segmented Mirrors 106
4.5.5 Piston/Tip/Tilt Segmented Mirrors 107
4.5.6 Membrane and Bimorph Mirrors 109
4.6 Summary and Conclusion 111
5 Control Algorithms 119
Li Chen
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Configuration of Lenslets and Actuators 119
5.3 Influence Function Measurement 122
5.4 Spatial Control Command of the Wavefront Corrector 124
5.4.1 Control Matrix for the Direct Slope Algorithm 124
5.4.2 Modal Wavefront Correction 127
5.4.3 Wave Aberration Generator 127
5.5 Temporal Control Command of the Wavefront Corrector 128
5.5.1 Open-Loop Control 128
5.5.2 Closed-Loop Control 129
5.5.3 Transfer Function of an Adaptive Optics System 130
6 Adaptive Optics Software for Vision Research 139
Ben Singer
6.1 Introduction 139
6.2 Image Acquisition 140
6.2.1 Frame Rate 140
6.2.2 Synchronization 140
6.2.3 Pupil Imaging 141
6.3 Measuring Wavefront Slope 142
6.3.1 Setting Regions of Interest 142
6.3.2 Issues Related to Image Coordinates 143
6.3.3 Adjusting for Image Quality 143
6.3.4 Measurement Pupils 143
6.3.5 Preparing the Image 143
6.3.6 Centroiding 144
6.4 Aberration Recovery 144
6.4.1 Principles 144
6.4.2 Implementation 145
6.4.3 Recording Aberration 147
6.4.4 Displaying a Running History of RMS 147
6.4.5 Displaying an Image of the Reconstructed Wavefront 148
6.5 Correcting Aberrations 149
6.5.1 Recording Influence Functions 149
6.5.2 Applying Actuator Voltages 150
6.6 Application-Dependent Considerations 150
6.6.1 One-Shot Retinal Imaging 150
6.6.2 Synchronizing to Display Stimuli 150
6.6.3 Selective Correction 151
6.7 Conclusion 151
6.7.1 Making Programmers Happy 151
6.7.2 Making Operators Happy 151
6.7.3 Making Researchers Happy 152
6.7.4 Making Subjects Happy 152
6.7.5 Flexibility in the Middle 153
7 Adaptive Optics System Assembly and Integration 155
Brian J. Bauman and Stephen K. Eisenbies
7.1 Introduction 155
7.2 First-Order Optics of the AO System 156
7.3 Optical Alignment 157
7.3.1 Understanding Penalties for Misalignments 158
7.3.2 Optomechanics 159
7.3.3 Common Alignment Practices 163
7.3.4 Sample Procedure for Offl ine Alignment 170
7.4 AO System Integration 174
7.4.1 Overview 174
7.4.2 Measure the Wavefront Error of Optical Components 175
7.4.3 Qualify the DM 175
7.4.4 Qualify the Wavefront Sensor 177
7.4.5 Check Wavefront Reconstruction 180
7.4.6 Assemble the AO System 181
7.4.7 Boresight FOVs 182
7.4.8 Perform DM-to-WS Registration 183
7.4.9 Measure the Slope Infl uence Matrix and Generate Control Matrices 184
7.4.10 Close the Loop and Check the System Gain 184
7.4.11 Calibrate the Reference Centroids 185
8 System Performance Characterization 189
Marcos A. van Dam
8.1 Introduction 189
8.2 Strehl Ratio 189
8.3 Calibration Error 191
8.4 Fitting Error 192
8.5 Measurement and Bandwidth Error 194
8.5.1 Modeling the Dynamic Behavior of the AO System 194
8.5.2 Computing Temporal Power Spectra from the Diagnostics 196
8.5.3 Measurement Noise Errors 198
8.5.4 Bandwidth Error 199
8.5.5 Discussion 200
8.6 Addition of Wavefront Error Terms 200
PART THREE RETINAL IMAGING APPLICATIONS 203
9 Fundamental Properties of the Retina 205
Ann E. Elsner
9.1 Shape of the Retina 206
9.2 Two Blood Supplies 209
9.3 Layers of the Fundus 210
9.4 Spectra 218
9.5 Light Scattering 220
9.6 Polarization 225
9.7 Contrast from Directly Backscattered or Multiply Scattered Light 228
9.8 Summary 230
10 Strategies for High-Resolution Retinal Imaging 235
Austin Roorda, Donald T. Miller, and Julian Christou
10.1 Introduction 235
10.2 Conventional Imaging 236
10.2.1 Resolution Limits of Conventional Imaging Systems 237
10.2.2 Basic System Design 237
10.2.3 Optical Components 239
10.2.4 Wavefront Sensing 240
10.2.5 Imaging Light Source 242
10.2.6 Field Size 244
10.2.7 Science Camera 246
10.2.8 System Operation 246
10.3 Scanning Laser Imaging 247
10.3.1 Resolution Limits of Confocal Scanning Laser Imaging Systems 249
10.3.2 Basic Layout of an AOSLO 249
10.3.3 Light Path 249
10.3.4 Light Delivery 251
10.3.5 Wavefront Sensing and Compensation 252
10.3.6 Raster Scanning 253
10.3.7 Light Detection 254
10.3.8 Frame Grabbing 255
10.3.9 SLO System Operation 255
10.4 OCT Ophthalmoscope 256
10.4.1 OCT Principle of Operation 257
10.4.2 Resolution Limits of OCT 259
10.4.3 Light Detection 262
10.4.4 Basic Layout of AO-OCT Ophthalmoscopes 264
10.4.5 Optical Components 266
10.4.6 Wavefront Sensing 266
10.4.7 Imaging Light Source 267
10.4.8 Field Size 267
10.4.9 Impact of Speckle and Chromatic Aberrations 268
10.5 Common Issues for all AO Imaging Systems 271
10.5.1 Light Budget 271
10.5.2 Human Factors 272
10.5.3 Refraction 272
10.5.4 Imaging Time 276
10.6 Image Postprocessing 276
10.6.1 Introduction 276
10.6.2 Convolution 276
10.6.3 Linear Deconvolution 278
10.6.4 Nonlinear Deconvolution 279
10.6.5 Uses of Deconvolution 283
10.6.6 Summary 283
PART FOUR VISION CORRECTION APPLICATIONS 289
11 Customized Vision Correction Devices 291
Ian Cox
11.1 Contact Lenses 291
11.1.1 Rigid or Soft Contact Lenses for Customized Correction? 293
11.1.2 Design Considerations-More Than Just Optics 295
11.1.3 Measurement-The Eye, the Lens, or the System? 297
11.1.4 Customized Contact Lenses in a Disposable World 298
11.1.5 Manufacturing Issues-Can the Correct Surfaces Be Made? 300
11.1.6 Who Will Benefit? 301
11.1.7 Summary 304
11.2 Intraocular Lenses 304
11.2.1 Which Aberrations-The Cornea, the Lens, or the Eye? 305
11.2.2 Correcting Higher Order Aberrations-Individual Versus Population Average 306
11.2.3 Summary 308
12 Customized Corneal Ablation 311
Scott M. MacRae
12.1 Introduction 311
12.2 Basics of Laser Refractive Surgery 312
12.3 Forms of Customization 317
12.3.1 Functional Customization 317
12.3.2 Anatomical Customization 319
12.3.3 Optical Customization 320
12.4 The Excimer Laser Treatment 321
12.5 Biomechanics and Variable Ablation Rate 322
12.6 Effect of the LASIK Flap 324
12.7 Wavefront Technology and Higher Order Aberration Correction 325
12.8 Clinical Results of Excimer Laser Ablation 325
12.9 Summary 326
13 From Wavefronts To Refractions 331
Larry N. Thibos
13.1 Basic Terminology 331
13.1.1 Refractive Error and Refractive Correction 331
13.1.2 Lens Prescriptions 332
13.2 Goal of Refraction 334
13.2.1 Definition of the Far Point 334
13.2.2 Refraction by Successive Elimination 335
13.2.3 Using Depth of Focus to Expand the Range of Clear Vision 336
13.3 Methods for Estimating the Monochromatic Refraction from an Aberration Map 337
13.3.1 Refraction Based on Equivalent Quadratic 339
13.3.2 Virtual Refraction Based on Maximizing Optical Quality 339
13.3.3 Numerical Example 353
13.4 Ocular Chromatic Aberration and the Polychromatic Refraction 354
13.4.1 Polychromatic Wavefront Metrics 356
13.4.2 Polychromatic Point Image Metrics 357
13.4.3 Polychromatic Grating Image Metrics 357
13.5 Experimental Evaluation of Proposed Refraction Methods 358
13.5.1 Monochromatic Predictions 358
13.5.2 Polychromatic Predictions 359
13.5.3 Conclusions 360
14 Visual Psychophysics With Adaptive Optics 363
Joseph L. Hardy, Peter B. Delahunt, and John S. Werner
14.1 Psychophysical Functions 364
14.1.1 Contrast Sensitivity Functions 364
14.1.2 Spectral Efficiency Functions 368
14.2 Psychophysical Methods 370
14.2.1 Threshold 370
14.2.2 Signal Detection Theory 371
14.2.3 Detection, Discrimination, and Identification Thresholds 374
14.2.4 Procedures for Estimating a Threshold 375
14.2.5 Psychometric Functions 377
14.2.6 Selecting Stimulus Values 378
14.3 Generating the Visual Stimulus 380
14.3.1 General Issues Concerning Computer-Controlled Displays 381
14.3.2 Types of Computer-Controlled Displays 384
14.3.3 Accurate Stimulus Generation 386
14.3.4 Display Characterization 388
14.3.5 Maxwellian-View Optical Systems 390
14.3.6 Other Display Options 390
14.4 Conclusions 391
PART FIVE DESIGN EXAMPLES 395
15 Rochester Adaptive Optics Ophthalmoscope 397
Heidi Hofer, Jason Porter, Geunyoung Yoon, Li Chen, Ben Singer, and David R. Williams
15.1 Introduction 397
15.2 Optical Layout 398
15.2.1 Wavefront Measurement and Correction 398
15.2.2 Retinal Imaging: Light Delivery and Image Acquisition 403
15.2.3 Visual Psychophysics Stimulus Display 404
15.3 Control Algorithm 405
15.4 Wavefront Correction Performance 406
15.4.1 Residual RMS Errors, Wavefronts, and Point Spread Functions 406
15.4.2 Temporal Performance: RMS Wavefront Error 407
15.5 Improvement in Retinal Image Quality 409
15.6 Improvement in Visual Performance 410
15.7 Current System Limitations 412
15.8 Conclusion 414
16 Design of an Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscope 417
Krishnakumar Venkateswaran, Fernando Romero-Borja, and Austin Roorda
16.1 Introduction 417
16.2 Light Delivery 419
16.3 Raster Scanning 419
16.4 Adaptive Optics in the SLO 420
16.4.1 Wavefront Sensing 420
16.4.2 Wavefront Compensation Using the Deformable Mirror 421
16.4.3 Mirror Control Algorithm 421
16.4.4 Nonnulling Operation for Axial Sectioning in a Closed-Loop AO System 423
16.5 Optical Layout for the AOSLO 425
16.6 Image Acquisition 426
16.7 Software Interface for the AOSLO 429
16.8 Calibration and Testing 431
16.8.1 Defocus Calibration 431
16.8.2 Linearity of the Detection Path 432
16.8.3 Field Size Calibration 432
16.9 AO Performance Results 432
16.9.1 AO Compensation 432
16.9.2 Axial Resolution of the Theoretically Modeled AOSLO and Experimental Results 434
16.10 Imaging Results 438
16.10.1 Hard Exudates and Microaneurysms in a Diabetic's Retina 438
16.10.2 Blood Flow Measurements 439
16.10.3 Solar Retinopathy 440
16.11 Discussions on Improving Performance of the AOSLO 441
16.11.1 Size of the Confocal Pinhole 441
16.11.2 Pupil and Retinal Stabilization 443
16.11.3 Improvements to Contrast 443
17 Indiana University AO-OCT System 447
Yan Zhang, Jungtae Rha, Ravi S. Jonnal, and Donald T. Miller
17.1 Introduction 447
17.2 Description of the System 448
17.3 Experimental Procedures 453
17.3.1 Preparation of Subjects 453
17.3.2 Collection of Retinal Images 454
17.4 AO Performance 455
17.4.1 Image Sharpening 457
17.4.2 Temporal Power Spectra 458
17.4.3 Power Rejection Curve of the Closed-Loop AO System 459
17.4.4 Time Stamping of SHWS Measurements 460
17.4.5 Extensive Logging Capabilities 461
17.4.6 Improving Corrector Stability 461
17.5 Example Results with AO Conventional Flood-Illuminated Imaging 461
17.6 Example Results With AO Parallel SD-OCT Imaging 463
17.6.1 Parallel SD-OCT Sensitivity and Axial Resolution 463
17.6.2 AO Parallel SD-OCT Imaging 466
17.7 Conclusion 474
18 Design and Testing of A Liquid Crystal Adaptive Optics Phoropter 477
Abdul Awwal and Scot Olivier
18.1 Introduction 477
18.2 Wavefront Sensor Selection 478
18.2.1 Wavefront Sensor: Shack-Hartmann Sensor 478
18.2.2 Shack-Hartmann Noise 483
18.3 Beacon Selection: Size and Power, SLD versus Laser Diode 484
18.4 Wavefront Corrector Selection 485
18.5 Wavefront Reconstruction and Control 486
18.5.1 Closed-Loop Algorithm 487
18.5.2 Centroid Calculation 488
18.6 Software Interface 489
18.7 AO Assembly, Integration, and Troubleshooting 491
18.8 System Performance, Testing Procedures, and Calibration 492
18.8.1 Nonlinear Characterization of the Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) Response 493
18.8.2 Phase Wrapping 493
18.8.3 Biased Operation of SLM 495
18.8.4 Wavefront Sensor Verification 495
18.8.5 Registration 496
18.8.6 Closed-Loop Operation 499
18.9 Results from Human Subjects 502
18.10 Discussion 506
18.11 Summary 508
APPENDIX A: OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA'S STANDARDS FOR REPORTING OPTICAL ABERRATIONS 511
GLOSSARY 529
SYMBOL TABLE 553
INDEX 565
